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Organisations and Marketing Assignment: Summer 1997.
Diploma in Careers Guidance, College of Guidance Studies, Swanley.
Cole Davis
"Managers create and constantly adapt the organisation so that
the work is well done by people who are satisfied with what they
have to do, so that they remain responsible and are able to adapt
well to the constantly changing circumstances of contemporary
working life." Analyse this statement and consider how this
applies to managers within a guidance or educational
organisation.
"If you're not in business for fun or profit what the
hell are you doing here?" (Townsend, 1970)
Each phrase of the title statement may be agreed or disagreed
with. It may be demonstrated that successful managers are
actually moulded by the organisation's culture and that they may
themselves be cast out as ill-adapted to industrial climate
changes. Work performance may not necessarily be moulded in the
rational way implied by 'create' and 'adapt'. The job
satisfaction, motivation and flexibility of employees is
dependent upon other factors as well as managerial attitudes.
Even the assumptions of dramatic change may be overstated.
These issues will be examined with reference to the way careers
services are managed.
Whether or not managers are positive creators of organisations
depends upon the question of whether leaders are born or made
(Guest, 1987). There is certainly much evidence to suggest that
successful leadership depends upon the interaction of personal
qualities with circumstances (Lewin, 1952), task complexity
(Fiedler, 1978), technology (Woodward, 1965) and the culture
within which work is embedded (Hofstede, 1980). So in spite of
such notions as transformational (versus transactional)
leadership (Burns, 1978), it could well be argued that managers
are created and adapted by organisations. This argument is
supported by the poor prognosis for radical change being achieved
by incumbent chief executives, who tend to be replaced by
outsiders (Whittington, 1991).
Managers' ability to create and adapt is also debatable.
March and Simon (1958) refer to bounded rationality. "We are
unable to consider more than a handful of factors, are biased in
our interpretation of data and may satisfice" (Whittington, 1993)
rather than select the optimal strategy. Planning may be
circumscribed by broad guidelines (umbrella strategy),
controlling the process of strategy formulation (Mintzberg, 1987)
or by being single-minded about objectives (Argenti, 1993). An
interpretative approach may try to avoid going against the grain
of organisational cultures (Johnson, 1989; Morgan, G., 1986;
Schein, 1985). Alternatively, logical incrementalism may seek to
follow up general aims with opportunistic responses to the
unexpected (Quinn, 1980); this emphasises consensus and
commitment in order to maintain links between strategy
formulation and implementation (Quinn, 1989).
A 'top-down' approach, however, - 'the manager creates' rather
than 'adapts' - is a questionable strategy. When new management
arrangements in careers services include "crisp decision making
by the Board" and "clearer distinctions between managerial and
delivery board" (Watson et al, 1995), it is not too surprising
that participation in decision-making and 'collegiate working'
are variable and that careers advisers do not have a clear
understanding of strategic and operational links (Morris and
Stoney, 1996).
Adoption of empirical-rational, normative-educational, or
power-coercive change strategies (Chin and Benne, 1976) - winning
minds, hearts or battles - may depend upon organisational
assumptions of employees' motivation, akin to McGregor's Theories
X and Y (1960). Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) suggest four
common reasons for employees to resist change: parochial self-
interest, misunderstanding / lack of trust, different assessments
and a low tolerance for change. They suggest a number of
options, including education and communication, participation and
involvement, facilitation and support, negotiation and agreement,
manipulation and co-optation, and explicit and implicit coercion.
Strategy would be chosen according to speed, resistance, and the
importance of the change (c.f. Lewin, 1951).
One consideration in decision making is the importance of job
satisfaction. There is very little evidence of a direct
relationship between job satisfaction and performance (Organ,
1991). This may be attributed to short-term performance
measurement as criteria. The problem, however, may be the
popular motivation theories which underpin many job satisfaction
questionnaires. These have major shortcomings.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943) - too famous for
description here - assumes that a person requires sufficient
satisfaction of physical and relationship needs before becoming
truly creative. Herzberg's 'Two Factor Theory' (1966) was
grounded in an industrial theory "designed to test the concept
that man has two sets of needs: his need as an animal to avoid
pain and his need as a human to grow psychologically" (in Pugh,
1990). Hygiene factors, such as pay and conditions, were seen as
essentially animal needs, 'dissatisfiers' in their absence; areas
such as autonomy were the psychological 'motivators', giving rise
to the notion of job satisfaction as a key to improved
performance within the human relations movement.
Arnold et al (1991) point to unpredictable groupings of needs;
it is, for example, quite possible to find people who are
respected and creative in spite of a lack of relationships. A
similar diversity is seen in research on Herzberg's two factors,
where both related to satisfaction and dissatisfaction (King,
1970; Locke, 1976; Miner and Dachler, 1973). Handy (1985)
considers a more fundamental behavioural criticism, one of
process: "the research evidence does not support the idea that
needs become less powerful as they are satisfied".
There may also, however, be very valid - if difficult to
measure - indirect effects of job satisfaction. Managers may
therefore still see job satisfaction for their subordinates as to
their own advantage. In the short-term, greater responsibility
and autonomy down the hierarchy may give more time to concentrate
on other matters. A longer term view would examine the benefits
of better group morale; although Wall et al (1986) found no
improvement in performance, the sheer absence of subordinate
agitation may be a pleasant outcome for many managers.
That such preoccupations may be essentially middle class is
suggested by the (1955) survey of Morse and Weiss. Although
McGregor's (1960) Theory Y may be supported in terms of a general
desire to work even if it were unnecessary, manual workers wanted
to do so on the grounds of pursuing an activity rather than for
some form of achievement. These findings were supported by those
of Goldthorpe et al (1968). Herzberg therefore over-extended his
model in suggesting that 'hygiene-seeking' was a sign of poor
mental health! (Similarly, predictions of better mental health
and performance within autonomous workgroups were not supported
by Wall et al [1986].)
Regardless of the accuracy or otherwise of the theories of
Maslow and Herzberg, people probably feel more flattered by these
concepts of humanity than ones which portray them as jealous
viewers of others (equity theory); calculators of complex odds
(expectancy theory); part of a diagrammatic system of influences
(goal-setting; c.f. Arnold et al, 1991); or as (relatively)
passive organisms influenced by past and future contingencies
(psychodynamic and learning theories).
Of the theories, goal-setting would seem to have the strongest
relationship with performance (Locke et al, 1981, 1988). Goal
setting specifies (reasonable) goal difficulty, specificity and
feedback. This can be seen to have taken root in action plans as
well as in setting targets. With the 'Thatcherite' paradigm,
however, came Quality Assurance monitoring - a Theory X mechanism
if ever there was one.
The previous paradigm shift of the 1960s and '70s probably had
a large bearing on need theories' continued popularity. The
recommendations of Herzberg may and should be respected beyond
the value of the theory. The emergent applications from
understanding satisfiers and dissatisfiers have greatly improved
the well-being of many workers. Regardless of effects on
industry, it is clearly in many individuals' perceived interests
to have congenial work settings.
Congeniality is not a matter of consensus, however. Most
careers advisers would agree with their learning organisation on
the need for skills development in a knowledge-based occupation
and few dedicated professionals would work without pay or its
eventual prospect. They may not, though, share the current
managerial enthusiasm for flattened structures (c.f. Fayol,
1949), as delayering presents fewer opportunities for promotion
(Johnstone, 1998). Fortunately for morale, careers services have
always had flat hierarchies (Law, 1996).
If job satisfaction is sought for - and employers may
appreciate managers' efforts as signs of commitment even if the
tasks themselves do not satisfy - managers of careers services
have plenty to consider. Hackman and Oldham (1976) defined
constructs of job satisfaction as skill variety, task identity,
task significance, autonomy and feedback.
Examples of interventions within careers services may mean
advisers and assistants both interviewing and visiting
opportunity providers (Morris and Stoney, 1996, found greater
specialisation in careers companies); follow-up of destinations
being undertaken by those involved in interactions; involvement
in organisational development as it impinges upon guidance;
prioritising work, including the ability to work at home, and
supportive supervision on a regular basis (as opposed to annual
appraisals).
Job satisfaction, if attained, may be necessary for
engendering responsibility, but may not be sufficient. There is
an attitude chasm between managers who view workers with the
assumptions of McGregor's Theory Y (1960), seeing employees as
naturally inclined to work and self-regulate, and those assuming
Theory X, that workers need cajoling and monitoring. Clearly,
managers are going to differ in their attitudes towards
empowerment, the meaning of which differs according to
perception.
Similarly, employees may differ in their attitudes to being
empowered. Not all individuals will be motivated by the
intrinsic rewards of the job, some seeing work as more peripheral
to their lives. Others, whilst seeing work as important, are
more likely to identify with their profession than their
organisation (Gouldner, 1957).
Some may perceive a lack of equity in proceedings. A sense
of responsibility is more credible if the employee is committed
to the organisation. This may mean emotional (or 'affective')
attachment, a sharing of moral goals and a perception of the
costs and risks associated with leaving (Allen and Meyer, 1990).
Employee commitment may depend upon a balance between the
expectations of employees and employer (Argyris, 1964). The
notion of the 'psychological contract' (Herriot, 1987) sums up
the need for both sides to be explicit about their expectations.
It is conceivable that without explicit negotiation and
subsequent agreements, expectations can become incompatible and
resignation or poor performance will result.
Whether or not such an ongoing contract is feasible - and this
could be part of the agenda for appraisals - there are some
actions which could improve mutual understanding at the onset of
the working relationship. The job interview should include the
passing on of meaningful information to the prospective employee,
as part of a two-way transaction (Herriot, 1987). Similarly, the
induction process may be crucial in ensuring successful
socialisation into the methods and culture of an organisation and
in making sense of new roles (Nicholson, 1984).
Being committed, well motivated and responsible, however, does
not necessarily indicate adaptability. Commitment may militate
against some changes and may indeed alter in quality as
individuals progress.
More experienced workers may take on a form of stewardship
(Arthur and Kram, 1989): managers must decide if such people are
'deadwood' or the custodians of an organisation's culture. Given
the effects of lost continuity after severe delayering and down-
sizing in some companies, perhaps managers should consider
allocating quality assurance tasks pertaining to traditional
company values. This could at times make a difference to the
usual alternative of re-training or dismissal.
The option of re-training assumes a need for change. Whilst
not contradicting the truism that all things must change,
assumptions of permanent revolution, such as Charles Handy's
Sigmoid Curve (1995), persuade managers to transform companies.
Workers must also change, becoming portfolio workers in
management literature (Handy, 1991) or 'flexible employees'.
Apart from requiring key skills, it is this writer's experience
that most employers don't really want - or don't utilise -
polymaths. Or does flexibility really mean the willingness to do
everything required at once and at any time? Hopefully,
careers advisers will have a grasp of a wide range of
occupational areas, and some business acumen, but not necessarily
because they will be doing a fundamentally different job from
hitherto.
Even assumptions of the external working environment, which
many writers describe as changing in a volatile manner, are very
questionable. Are we really becoming a nation of temporary and
contract workers? (Permanent jobs are still very much the
norm in most occupations.) Will information technology change
whole economies? (Some analyses of industrial changes led by the
Internet amount to merely channelling advertising and some
business transactions.) Are globalised market forces leading
to a new market structure?
Kumar (1997) deconstructs the overlapping post-industrialist
theories of the information society, post-Fordism and post-
modernism. Small often interdependent North Italian high
technology industries are often cited as examples of this. These
may not be indicative of industrial sea change; outside of
Umbrian culture, such organisations may merely form a
counterpoint, a reaction by companies trying to survive in the
face of Leviathan.
As still dominant monoliths, supermarkets and fast food
chains demonstrate that Fordism still has the upper hand. Niche
marketers such as the Sock, Tie and Body Shops are forever on
edge. One apparently information-based company, Microsoft,
seems to prefer to buy other companies rather than innovate in
any significant way. Microsoft even breaks with the shibboleth
of market forces, with customers being constrained by available
products rather than being the arbiters of demand.
The Windows operating system, as the primary example, is
continually refined to exclude external compatibility and thus
competition; buyers do not necessarily like the latest upgrade,
but are bound by the available software, which is itself produced
either by Microsoft or firms in thrall to the same phenomenon.
Yet such assumptions of learning organisations and post-
Fordism are the very stuff of labour market information trends.
Guidance workers are only sure of the uncertainty of the
postmodern society.
Postmodernism seems in fact a reincarnation of older analyses
of the present - which only seem ludicrous from later
perspectives - fin de siecle, the end of history and relativism.
The Restoration of Charles II may well have seemed post-modern
after the political and cultural upheavals of the civil war and
Interregnum. Trends can rarely be recognised as significant
until they become to some extent historical: until they are, they
are part of contemporary life and a matter of uncertainty.
Given that limits to planning extend beyond the bounded
rationality of managers (March and Simon, 1958), encompassing
wider uncertainties, choices of action are more fluid than they
may appear. Whilst regulated by legislation and guided by
professional practice, managers do not have to follow the smooth-
tongued but often vicious dictates of the management theorists of
the 1980s. Charles Handy, in the The Empty Raincoat (1995),
acknowledges the distress that he had not expected in The Age of
Unreason (1991) but fails to see the support that he and his
colleagues had in providing chic for Reaganomics, with the
delights of chaos theory and re-engineering.
In the 1990s, some management theorists are recommending a new
relationship between managers and managed. John Gilpin indicates
two ways of leading, command and control, and pacing and leading:
"We expect others to join us at our map of the world,
do it as we do it and see things from our point of view
(or) we enter someone else's map of the world, where we
value and respect their perspectives, create rapport,
build trust and then move them imperceptibly towards
another way of seeing things. (The 1990s require)
servant leaders .. serving the needs of others in order
to attract willing volunteers on to one's own pathway
to achievement and success. " (Trapp, 1998)
This appears to be a blend of logical incrementalism, with its
quest for consensus, and people-centred as opposed to task-
centred leadership (Fiedler, 1978). It is one of several
attempts by management theorists to predict or promote a more
caring management in the 1990s. Whether or not this would be any
different from the 'human relations' school of organisational
development is a moot point, but it would appear that choices are
possible.
These are moral choices. Organisations have more than one way
of viewing themselves; to many, they would often seem to have
adopted the metaphor of the prison (Morgan, 1986). Although
bound with their own traditions as careers services and absorbing
commercial values, the new careers companies are left with some
leeway as to how to provide leadership and to empower their
staff.
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