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6 The
Psychology of Guidance
Overview - psychology may be considered as a
vital source of theories related to
vocational choice, human development and models of guidance. It may offer explanations as to why people
select certain jobs or life choices, which career choice selections are likely
to be sources of happiness to them and what models of guidance are likely to
prove effective. It should be noted -
and this will be considered - that psychology is not without its rivals in
other disciplines.
Psychology has been described as
- among other things - as the science of
mental life, how people think and behave and the interactions between one
individual and others. This variation of
definitions (by no means exhaustive) is at least in part a reflection of the
different theories in psychology, to be described shortly.
Psychology itself is a broad
discipline. Cognitive psychology, for example,
covers areas such as memory and
perception, with impacts on everyday life in areas as diverse as the
credibility of eyewitness testimony and the effects of advertising. Other areas include occupational psychology
(pertaining to the world of work and including careers counselling),
educational psychology, social psychology (the behaviour of people in groups)
and developmental psychology (the progress of adults as well as children). At various points, these domains of
psychology have a bearing on careers guidance: they investigate - amongst other
things - the efficacy of careers interventions, effectiveness of different
types of teaching, how social influences affect individuals and the likely
predictive ability of different models of guidance.
Before discussing models of guidance,
it may be helpful to look briefly at different assumptions of the nature of
human beings. Each of the theories, it
should be noted, is a different way of looking at the human condition; reality,
of course, tends to resemble a blend of these.
Mainstream theories within psychology - there are three main traditions
within psychology.
The psychodynamic tradition is most famously represented by Sigmund
Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis.
Freud represented the human mind as in perpetual conflict between three
internal if figurative entities. These
are the id (essentially, the biological
being with its uncontrolled needs and desires), the superego (moral conscience)
and the ego (the more calculating side of the mind, trying to reconcile the
other two contenders). Such a way of interpreting thoughts and, more
characteristically feelings, particularly concentrates upon factors such as
guilt and the repression and rechannelling of uncomfortable desires. Freud sees early relationships between an
infant and its parents as crucial to future development; love and hostility lead to stages through
which a child may pass successfully or become 'fixated'. These preoccupations become those which may
become repressed (apparently pushed beneath consciousness) or rechannelled into
other 'drives' such as competitiveness.
This way of thinking - which has been very briefly described here - led
to attempts at psychoanalysis, where the patient is encouraged to bring to
consciousness those factors which have become buried.
Psychotherapy
and the interpretation of dreams were methods developed for this purpose. Other psychodynamic thinkers include Jung,
Adler,
Behaviourism
- as with psychodynamic theory, this tradition has more than one major
thinker. Perhaps the most influential,
however, B. F. Skinner, suggested that theory should be ignored. Essentially, behaviourism is a scientific
perspective of psychology, relying on experimental results for its body of
knowledge. Although defining human
behaviour as the combination of the biological organism and the environment,
behaviourism takes the environment as the factor to concentrate on.
One behaviourist, J. B. Watson,
specified association as the most influential environment. People's attitudes to things and other
individuals are coloured by their past experiences; if, for example, a child is
fond of its father and his father displays racist attitudes, such attitudes are
likely to be viewed in a positive way.
Such ideas are supported by the findings of the Russian physiologist
Ivan Pavlov, who discovered that dogs would automatically salivate when hearing
a bell which was normally accompanied by food; they learned by
association. The findings of Watson and
Pavlov led to theories of conditioning.
Skinner, famous for his work with rats
and other animals, developed a theory of reinforcement. Essentially, behaviour becomes more frequent
when reinforced by positive
consequences. It may also be reduced by
unpleasant consequences or even a lack of consequences or attention.
Watson agrees with Freud about the
importance of early childhood on development, although concentrates on
environmental stimuli (e.g. parenting) rather than conflicts within
relationships. Skinner also suggests
that external factors continue to
influence people both in the immediate present and over accumulated experience
('the history of reinforcement').
Therapies arising from behaviourism
include flooding, systematic desensitisation, behaviour modification and other
means of tackling people by coping with behaviour. A gradual melding with cognitive theories have led to a various highly effective
therapies used - often in combination with drugs - to cope with depression,
anxiety and other psychological problems (the work of Aaron Beck is of great
relevance here).
Humanism,
instead of focusing on biological or environmental influences on individuals,
stresses the ability of human beings to make their own choices and to take
responsibility for their own lives.
George Kelly (1955) for example,
suggests that each of us has our own set of theories about the world, constructs. Each human learns different lessons from life
and construes the world in a
particular way. Individuals are
encouraged to discover their way of thinking about the world as a way to
challenge less effective ways of coping (Bern, 1974, brings a similar approach
to bear in his consideration of people's adoption of scripts).
The more famous Carl Rogers, proponent
of client-centred counselling, also stresses the ability of a person both
to construct reality and to make
conscious and responsible decisions.
His approach centres on the emotional and the immediate; embodied within
the approach are practical skills which are widely applied in guidance and in
counselling.
Rogerian techniques emphasise
listening to the client with empathy, transparency/congruence (
Human development - the awkward
question.
Although the three primary
perspectives have direct influences on types of counselling and psychotherapy,
the division may owe more to the history of psychology than to any fundamental,
comprehensive or systematic coverage of the subject. Although one may view psychoanalysis as
primarily a study (albeit unscientific) of the biological human entity,
behaviourism as an environmental focus and humanism as the pre-eminence of the
human will, none of the proponents exclude the existence of the other
factors. George Kelly, for example,
while concentrating on free will, remembers the poverty of the
Similarly, various factors are omitted
and questions concealed by a study of psychology split into such
fragments. Studies of personality types,
for example, do not always make assumptions about the origin of traits or
types. Studies of human development are
similarly not always preoccupied by the question of from whence but when and in
what way. Recent discoveries relating
to the human genome have also informed us in different ways about the effects
of heredity (nature as opposed to nurture).
One such theory, best known by
teachers, is Piaget's theory of development.
Putting it very tersely, Piaget suggests that children grow, almost like plants, in stages and
spurts. His studies of children's
learning suggested that they would only be able to learn certain things when
they at a stage of mental readiness for it.
A young child, for example, is unlikely to understand very abstract
concepts.
While Piaget is preoccupied by intellectual development, Erikson (an
inheritor of the psychodynamic tradition) studies development in terms of emotional stages. Although Piaget and Freud also describe
stages of development, Erikson considers adulthood with as much gravity as
child development. His analysis of life development provides food for thought
for both counsellors and careers workers.
Erikson (1959) describes eight stages
of life, each providing a challenge (or crisis)
to individuals, with positive and negative events each time leading to a range
of consequences with implications for later stages.
1. Sensory
stage. The infant is dependent in
its first few months; this particular 'crisis' involves the learning of trust
or suspicion. In particular, the
attitude of the mother may lead to a person mistrusting other people throughout
life.
2. Muscular
development. During toilet training,
the crisis, based on successful or unsuccessful learning, leads to the
development of confidence and independence, or shame and self-doubt.
3. Locomotor
control stage. The child learns to
move about the world, developing initiative and self-expression or becoming
guilt-ridden. It is suggested that this
leads to the adult finding socially acceptable ways of expressing sexual needs
or becoming guilt-obsessed.
4. Latency
stage, in the early school years. Self-discovery of competency or failure
compared to peers lead to adult industriousness or a pervading sense of
inferiority.
5. Puberty
stage. Sexuality but also self
identity. The individual finds identity
relating to sex, social interactions and plans for the future. The individual must accept his or her
identity or will become confused about who he/she is and about the nature of
his/her role in life.
6. Young
adulthood. The establishment of
intimacy with another person, or failure leading to isolation. (Marriage does not in itself mean an intimacy
outcome - partners may remain psychologically isolated.)
7.
Adulthood. The 'growth crisis' in the middle years
determines the development of a productive useful human being or settling into
a pattern of complacency and stagnation.
8. Maturity
is reached only by those who have successfully resolved the previous
crises. The person comes to terms with
death: the person may face it with a feeling of self-worth or with despair,
feeling that life has been a foolish waste.
Erikson recommended 'triple
book-keeping', regarding biology (determined), psychology (largely free will)
and social context. His model of development, less deterministic than Freud or
behaviourists, who saw human development
as largely dominated by biological and environmental control rather than free
will, but little research has been undertaken to prove or disprove Erikson's
ideas, which were based on his clinical work.
As well as some similarities to Freud
and Piaget, Erikson also bears a resemblance to a humanist theorist, Abraham
Maslow. Maslow suggests a Hierarchy of
Needs in the progress of psychological growth.
a= self actualisation b= esteem c= belongingness d= safety e= physiological
Each level needs to be satisfied before
the next need can be assuaged. First come physiological
needs (food, drink, sex; the most primitive and obviously biological
needs). Then safety (shelter and security generally). Belongingness;
a sense of attachment to others. Esteem: being valued and respected. Self-actualisation:
fulfilling one's potential. This is a
very popular way of analysing the self and also motivation at work.
Objectivity is difficult because of
Maslow's popularity at training sessions, in spite of very little research
backing. The writer suggests to the reader, however, that some of these stages
make little sense in their current order.
Belongingness to a group, for example, can manifest itself and indeed
become strengthened by lack of safety.
Some individuals have fulfilled their potential in spite (or because) of
immense deprivation; in any case, some of the biographies of great people
studied by Maslow as examples of self-actualised people suggested people who
were often neither likable nor personally very admirable.
Perhaps a more meaningful study of human development, at least in terms
of research backing, was conducted by Levinson in 1978, who called it The
Seasons of a Man's Life. (N.b. a section on women's lives will be found later.
Levinson studied 40 men between 35 and 45.
Four occupational groups were studied - biologists, industrial workers,
executives and novelists - 10 from each group.
He and his colleagues interviewed them biographically, aiming to elicit
life stories and then to generalise from them.
Analysing the biographies led to the researchers tending to support
Levinson's views. At the end of each
era (containing the rough five year periods) comes a transition period in which
the person tends to review what has gone before and to explore future possibilities.
|
early adulthood |
Early adult transition 17-22 years Entering the adult world Age 30 Transition 28-33 years Settling down 33-40 years |
following a dream; forming mentor relationships developing and forming love
relationships |
|
middle adulthood |
Midlife Transition 40-45 years Entering middle adulthood 45-50 years Age 50 Transition 50-55 years Culmination of middle adulthood 55-60 years |
review; revise;
individuation |
|
late adulthood |
Late adult Transition 60-65 years |
coming to terms
with being old |
The Dream
An imagined possibility that provides inspiration and energy. In Levinson's sample, the biologists' and
novelists' 'dream' tended to be connected with work. The executives' dreams tended to be more
concerned with their families and social lives.
A number of the industrial workers had fantasies about exciting types of
work and achievements, but depressingly, these had usually faded with the
passage of time.
The
The mentoring relationship is regarded by Levinson as one the most
important in the early adulthood stage.
It is most frequently based in the work setting, where mentoring
functions may be taken by a boss or senior colleague. Formal or informal, with or without a
position of power, the mentoring function may be as a teacher, a sponsor, a
host and guide, or an exemplar for the person to emulate, or simply may offer
advice and support. The mentor is more
often seen as an older brother or sister than as a parent figure; an important
part of the relationship is that as the young person's skills increase, the relationship
gradually becomes more equal.
Edgar Schein, an American careers theorist, distinguishes between seven
different types of mentoring role, giving different types of satisfaction:
1.
Teacher, coach or trainer;
teaches 'what goes on around here'
2.
Positive role model; 'I learned a
lot from watching them'; a good example
3.
Developer of talent; 'gave me
challenging work and stretched me'
4. Opener of doors; ensures opportunities and growth-producing
assignments; fights 'upstairs' for the younger person, whether or not the
younger person is aware of it.
5.
Protector (mother hen); 'watched over me and protected me while I
learned; I could make mistakes and learn without risking my job!)
6. Sponsor; makes their protege 'visible',
makes sure they have a 'good press' and are given exposure to higher-level
people so that they will be remembered when new opportunities come along, with
or without the awareness of the younger person.
7. Successful leader; this means that his or
her supporters may 'ride along on his or her coat-tails', bringing them along.
The leading researcher in the area of mentoring is Kathy Kram, who
considers the above roles as being divided between career functions -
sponsorship, coaching,
protection, exposure, challenging work -
and psychosocial functions - role modeling, counselling,
acceptance, confirmation, friendship.
Research suggests that a combination of the instrumental and the intimate relationship (not that intimate!) is most effective.
Reviewing: the develop of more appropriate
aspirations and expectations; Levinson calls this process disillusionment.
Modifying
life structure: may involve
external factors such as job change, change in pattern of leisure activities,
separation or divorce; or solely internal, such as a gradual change in
attitudes to work or to relationships.
Individuation:
this follows on from one of Freud's other disciples, Jung, and is about
'confronting and integrating'
'polarities or oppositional tendencies within our being'. Tis a wonderful thing, psychodynamic
psychology! Essentially, there are said
to be polarities, feelings with opposing pulls, between being young and old,
masculine and feminine, destructive and creative, and attachment and
separateness. Individuals come to terms
with the paradox [apparently contradictory statement] of feeling both of each
set of impulses or sensations.
It has been suggested in recent career
development literature that one major function of the later stages of a
person's working life could be devoted to the mentoring of others in the
workplace.
Donald Super also adopts a stage
theory, derived from the work of Erikson.
Individuals match their self-concepts against their pictures of known
occupations within stages of Growth (0-14 years), Exploration (15-24),
Establishment (25-44), Maintenance (45-64) and Decline (65+). In his 'Life-Career Rainbow', Super attempts
to bring in the variety of roles assumed by individuals in their lifetimes, as
well as a variety of personal and situational determinants. Such complexity is unlikely to be of
practical use (Yost & Corbishley, 1987).
Super's self-concept theory also appears to be of greater applicability
to able young people than to others less fortunate.
PUBLIC HEALTH
WARNING:
STAGE THEORIES
MAY BE BAD FOR YOUR HEALTH.
Whilst there may be a 'social clock' telling you that you are behind
time, ahead, or about right in your career, you should not take these stages
too seriously. Otherwise, you will make
these theories correct just by paying too much attention to them.
Having
criticised stage theories, there are some interesting ‘stage’ analyses of
phases within careers which remain
independent of chronological stages.
One
example of career patterns is that of
Driver (1988).
Ÿ One
type is the ‘steady state’ career,
where a person selects an occupation early in life and follows it consistently; typical of professional and skilled
workers.
Ÿ Another
is the ‘linear’ pattern, where a
person progresses upwards in a chosen field; corporate manager s are typical
here.
Ÿ ‘Transitory’: frequent changes of
employment, without stability; the pattern is found most commonly in
semi-skilled and clerical occupations.
Ÿ The
‘spiral’ career pattern is followed
where a career moves from one field to another, related or otherwise. Consultants and writer fit this pattern in
particular.
Another
distinction is between ‘orderly’ and
‘disorderly’ careers (Wilensky,
1961).
Watts
(1981) gives a more specific typology of job changing.
Sequential:
previous experience or training leads to more responsible positions
(e.g. worker to junior manager).
Lateral:
sideways moves, for example teaching in a similar position but in a
school in another area.
Regressive: returning to a less responsible job in
the same profession.
Augmenting:
experience and skills from previous work are used in a different
occupation.
Recycling:
previous experience and training are more or less abandoned when
starting a new occupation.
Nicholson (1987) describes a ‘transition
cycle’ within career tasks.
The
first phase is preparation for a
particular position. An anticipatory
socialisation takes place, where a person becomes psychologically acclimatised
to the idea of the new job.
Expectations, desires and resources may be unrealistic.
The
next phase is encounter, where the
individual copes and makes sense of a new situation.
Adjustment may mean the person changing
to fit the role (or, with some individuals, a moulding of the job to fit the
individual), reducing lack of fit between the person and the environment (an
important concept, to be discussed later).
Stabilisation involves increasing
commitment to the organisation, development of a role and influence. This then leads back (recursion) to the preparation
phase.
Cycles may be interrupted by each other; and experience within one stage
may have a profound effect on other stages.
Each stage may have very distinctive features.
Schein
(1978) sees the adjustment stage as one of ‘mutual discovery’ between
organisation and employee. The
‘occupational concept’ may become more focused (people, for example, who see
themselves as careers advisers or counsellors may start to identify themselves
with the Careers Service or a college or another specific organisation or
sub-profession).
The person develops a psychological self-concept, a career anchor. This is based
on self-perceived talents and abilities based on work experiences;
self-perceived motives and needs based on feedback, tests and reflection; self-perceived attitudes and values from the
norms and values developed within organisations.
Schein
studied business graduates and suggested
the existence of 5 career anchors:
technical-functional
competence: individuals organising their careers around
this career anchor make moves by making the most of challenging
opportunities. They may often resist
going into general management, preferring the acquisition of particular skills.
managerial
competence: Schein’s professional subjects of study saw
this within three sub-competences: analytical competence, interpersonal
competence and emotional competence. They felt most successful when taking a
lot of responsibility.
security and
stability: preoccupation with stability tended to lead
to regular employment in an organisation or geographical area. They tended to allow the organisation to
define how they could contribute most effectively.
creativity:
career decisions were made around the need to create a particular
product, company or service. Such
individuals would like to leave their mark on whatever they did. Leading edge, they would move on to a new
task, rather than perform ‘maintenance’ functions.
autonomy and
independence: finding through experience that they could
not work for large organisations, people would become autonomous as university
teachers or freelance workers. They would choose and maintain specific
lifestyles and the manner in which they worked.